Introduction

art

O'zapft is!” The first draft from the beer cask freshly tapped by the Munich mayor who offers the first tankard to the Bavarian prime minister, fires the starting shot for a medial mega event. Hardly any TV or radio station, hardly any newspaper or journal exists that will not think it worthwhile to dedicate reports, features and articles to the Oktoberfest. The attractions, the latest fashions in dress, or rather in traditional costumes, the gossip about VIPs, the most popular musical hits played at the “Wiesn” – or simply the yearly complaint about the rising cost of typical delicacies such as beer, grilled chicken or a fish roll – there is hardly any aspect of the feast, which will not be analysed and happily discussed in every detail.

The Oktoberfest, which starts in September and only ends in October, has long become its own brand. If one considers its history, there was no way around it. Solely for the fact that the event taking place on Theresienwiese (Theresia Meadow, at first outside, then near, and finally in Munich) has changed steadily since 1810 in form and meaning, the Oktoberfest could become what it is today.

The Wedding of the Crown Prince in 1810

If it had been the decision of Crown Prince Ludwig von Bayern (1786-1868), his wedding celebration - which marked the birth of today’s Oktoberfest - would not have taken place in the autumn but earlier in the year. After all, there was danger that the odious Emperor Napoleon I (1769-1821) might force him to marry a French princess, perhaps even a lady from the emperor’s own family, in the last moment.

His bride, Therese von Sachsen-Hildburghausen (1792-1854), was in some aspects an ideal match considering the situation at the time. The small duchy of Saxe-Hildburghausen was part of the Napoleonic Confederation of the Rhine. Therefore, the match would hardly call for political complications. An imperial intervention, as had happened in the case of Ludwig’s first fiancé, a Russian princess, was unlikely. In addition, the duchy was too small (and in too much debt) that the connection would raise the hackles of Napoleon’s enemies in Europe. Even the fact that the Lutheran Therese was not prepared to convert to Catholicism did not mean an impediment.

Ludwig had met Therese and her sister Luise (1794-1825), who was considered an equally suitable candidate, for the first time in December 1809. After consultation with his father who at the time stayed in Paris to ask for Napoleon’s permission to make sure that all was well, the engagement was celebrated on 12 February 1810.

Nonetheless, Maximilian I Joseph (1756-1825) did not give in to his son’s urgency. For organisational reasons alone, the wedding was delayed until the month of October, during which the respective name days of the prospective father-in-law (12 Oct.) and bride (15 Oct.) almost offered themselves as ideal key elements of the celebrations. The wedding ceremony took place on 12 October.

During the days before and after the ceremony, appropriate celebrations took place with balls, opera performances and other courtly delights. The inhabitants of the residential city were also included into the festivities. A festive illumination delighted the citizens of Munich, possibly the subsequent provision of food with plentiful bread, meat, sausages and beer made them even happier. Rich citizens and the nobility decorated their palaces and hotels magnificently. In particular, the palace of Count Montgelas (1759-1838) excelled by means of its floral decoration. The ornamentation on the house of the rich banker Dall' Armi also found mention in the descriptions.

Despite all the ceremonies in the city, the city of Munich itself did not participate in the celebrations, for a Bavarian communal decree dated to 1808 had almost entirely abolished the self-administration of the communes. There was, therefore, no space for receptions or for other events by means of which the residential city would otherwise certainly have contributed to the wedding of the crown prince.

Instead of the commune, now the national guard of the third class, the citizens’ guard, took action. In 1809, the powerful Bavarian minister, Count Maximilian von Montgelas, had transformed the voluntary citizens’ guard into a national guard and divided it into three separate classes: in the case of war, the first class was part of the standing army, the second class was ordered to contribute to the defence within Bavaria. Only the third class was supposed to stay put and to take on police work. In this class were, therefore, gathered the members of the long-established Munich citizens’ families, whose financial means also helped to contribute to an appropriate appearance of the citizens’ guard.

Decisive became the initiative of Andreas Michael von Dall'Armi (1765-1842), a cavalry major in the Munich national guard, third class. The merchant’s son was born in Trent and had married into the banking family of Nockher. Next to his brother-in-law, Jacob Nockher, he established himself as the most important banker in Munich.

Dall'Armi accepted the suggestion of one of his subordinates, Franz Baumgartner, who had proposed that the cavalry of the citizens’ guard should organise a horse race for the occasion of the royal wedding. Dall'Armi gained the permission for the event, organised it and published programmes and a description, which literally “fixed” the image of the festivities for the future.

The programmes and the account of the race, which was published in 1811, showed that Dall'Armi was not only concerned about the enjoyment of his fellow-citizens in Munich or about the royal family. Surely the horse race superficially revived older traditions, such as the Scharlachrennen (scarlet races), which had taken place in 1780-1786 during the Jacobidult (St. James’s Fair). In reality, what counted was the representation of the city and of its higher strata of society versus the royal family – and, to an extent, also the further success story of Dall'Armi himself.

King Max I Joseph probably did not dislike the initiative either. In 1810, Bavaria was a state jumbled together from old and new parts; it was by no means clear, whether it would be able to keep its territorial extension. After all, the borders of the young kingdom had been changed again only a few months previously. As king “by the grace of Napoleon” he ruled over people who had mostly not been born as Bavarians and still did not feel as Bavarians. Any chance to unite symbolically the new political entity was useful at such a time.

As site of the event, which was scheduled for 17 October 1810, served the open meadow outside the city gates. The slope of the Sendlinger Höhe (Sendlingen Heights; today Schwanthal Heights) provided an ideal, natural grandstand. The meadows in front were for the most part property of the families of Munich citizens, including that of Dall’Armi. From the royal collections, a huge Osman tent, which Elector Max Emanuel (1662-1726) had once captured, was used as the Königszelt (Royal Tent). Placed on a height, it offered enough space to the court society to watch the race. On the feast day, after Holy Mass, the National Guard and the population proceeded towards the festively prepared meadow, next the court society arrived there no less solemnly. Children of Munich families (including Dall'Armi’s own children), dressed up as personifications of Bavaria and of her districts, appeared and paid their respect to the king and to the crown princely couple. Singers trained by holiday schools performed a song composed especially for the occasion. Thereafter, the royal family took breakfast. For the other guests several innkeepers had placed carts on the Sendlingen Heights, from where refreshments were served. The race itself was won by the Cavalry Sergeant Franz Baumgartner, who according to Dall'Armi had originally had the idea for the event.

The festivities were a great success with all those involved. In particular, Dall'Armi had already developed ambitious plans. He intended to turn the festival site into a magnificent permanent venue, following the example of Milan, where Napoleon I had ordered the construction of an arena after the ancient model. Dall'Armi also had had the idea of turning the meadows and commons before the Sendlingen Height into a lasting memorial site. Even on the day of the race, he suggested to call the site of the race after the crown princess. Thus, nameless pieces of real estate became the meadow of Theresia – the “Theresienwiese”.

The Royal Feast

In 1811, the race was supposed to be repeated. Unfortunately though, the National Guard of the third class had run out of funds. Probably it was Dall'Armi, who found a new sponsor: the “Landwirtschaftliche Verein in Bayern” (the Agricultural Association in Bavaria). This association had been instituted as recently as in 1810 and had adopted the task of modernising the agriculture of the agrarian kingdom. The suggestion to repeat the race of 1810, to reward agricultural breeding performance, and to connect it with an agricultural fair – the first of its kind in the German-speaking lands – were received with enthusiasm. The horse race, thereby, turned into the “October-Feast”, and a single event gave rise to a new tradition.

In 1813, the Oktoberfest was cancelled for the first time in its short history because of the Napoleonic Wars. To this day, there have been another 18 cancellations, because of cholera epidemics (1854, 1873), wars (1866, 1870, 1914-1918, 1939-1945) or because of the inflation (1923 and 1924). On five occasions, for reasons of parsimony only smallish replacement feasts took place, so-called “Herbstfeste” (autumnal holidays 1919, 1920, 1946-1948).

But, the Agricultural Association in Bavaria also suffered as the result of the financial burden caused by the Oktoberfest. On several occasions, state grants were needed for running the festival. When in 1818, the city of Munich regained self-administration by means of the second communal decree, responsibility for organising the celebrations were handed over to the magistrate of the city. From now on, the association only had to look after the Agricultural Fair.

King Max I Joseph already used the yearly-celebrated Oktoberfest as a platform for representation. At least for the main race, sometimes on other occasions as well, the royal family arrived in a magnificent procession on the Theresienwiese. Even when the ruler was not present, the centrally placed Königszelt (Royal Tent) remained the visible focus of the festive ground. Frequently, award banners and other prizes were handed over by high-ranking functionaries, by a prince or by the ruler in person, who thereby could present himself effectively as father of the fatherland.

Since 1825, Ludwig I used the celebrations even more intensively for the self-fashioning of his dynasty, since he aimed to place important events into the week of celebrations, sometimes even onto Theresienwiese (Theresia Meadow) itself. In 1826, for example, during the celebrations a great homage to the young king was performed. Similarly, Ludwig I had in 1832 organised the ovation of a Greek deputation to his son Otto (1815-1867) to take place on the Theresienwiese. The festivities were delayed on purpose by a week. In 1835, the silver wedding anniversary of the royal couple was celebrated during the Oktoberfest with a magnificence never displayed before. Part of this display was a huge historical procession that may be considered in some respect as a direct precursor of today’s historical costume parades. Equally, in 1842, the marriage of the heir to the throne Maximilian (1811-1864) with Princess Marie von Preußen (1825-1889) was celebrated during the week of festivities. Only in 1847, the political storms of the following year could already be sensed, Ludwig I no longer appeared on the Oktoberfest.

Up to 1840, the audience numbers had grown continuously, while the geographical origins of the visitors had remained regional. The festive period kept being extended, the sportive events in the programme became more numerous and more and more beer stalls offered additional refreshments. When the train line between Augsburg and Munich was opened in 1840, visitor numbers rose sharply. The regional festivity of the capital quickly became an event that attracted attendants from all over the kingdom.

Under King Maximilian II, who had succeeded his father in 1848, the Oktoberfest grew even further along the pattern marked out so far. The king was often present but not as influential as the more charismatic Ludwig. The central monarchic event of the time, the inauguration of the colossal statue of Bavaria in 1850 was, therefore, aimed more towards the abdicated king than towards his son.

The sudden death of Maximilian in 1864 constituted, however, a true break, for King Ludwig II (1845-1886) could not see the point of the goings-on at Theresienwiese. Consequently, his attendances were scarce. Of the 18 Oktoberfests held during his reign, he only visited five.

Perhaps for this reason as well, during the years of Ludwig II’s rule (1864-1886), the Oktoberfest started to change gradually. Surely, the agricultural exhibitions and awards continued and there were further rifle competitions, horse races and additional sports events. And, of course, the excursions of the members of the royal court on Theresienwiese offered the kind of spectacle, intended to solidify the bonds between the people and the ruling family. These traditional components were now being completed by the seductive worlds of booths and beer halls, by providers of roast beef and ethnographic displays. In 1861, the conditions of access for fairground people and tradesmen had been loosened; less than twenty years later, in 1880, around 400 booths attracted the visitors, ever-larger buildings were designed and a continuous search for the latest and most impressive showplace went on. Accordingly, the visitor numbers increased: in 1861, 80,000 visitors attended the Oktoberfest, in 1882, this number was reached in one single day. The Königszelt (Royal Tent) continued to stand in the centre of the venue, but within the masses of tents, wooden constructions, flags and people, it had lost its power of attraction. In 1879, the strong man and publican Hans Steyrer (1848-1906), whose manner to this day influences our image of the “Wies’n-Baron” (typical host acting as publican at the Oktoberfest), appeared for the first time at the Oktoberfest. In 1896, publican Michael Schottenhamel (1838-1912) commissioned the first large beer hall, which became the prototype of the tents that dominate the celebrations to this day. Also in 1896, the Oberbayerische Zimmerstutzen-Schützenverband (Upper Bavarian Federation of Riflemen) organised a first Procession of Riflemen towards Theresienwiese for the start of the festivities.

During the time of the prince regent, when “Munich gleamed”, as Thomas Mann (1875-1955) put it, the Oktoberfest brought once more a stronger presence of the ruling family onto Theresienwiese. Even in 1886, in the wake of King Ludwig II’s death, Prince Regent Luitpold (1821-1912) had prevented the cancellation of the festival, since it was too precious as a place of self-presentation and self-legitimisation. A small part of the popularity of the prince regent was certainly also based on his appearance at the Oktoberfest.

Up to 1886, the city of Munich managed to purchase all the premises adjoining to Theresienwiese in today’s extension and to protect them from the threat of development. Subsequently, more permanent pathways were laid, which were at first covered in gravel (macadamised). In 1890, followed water pipes, in 1885-1901 the electrification of the entire festival grounds.

In 1910, the city of Munich celebrated the 100th anniversary of the crown princely wedding with such pomp and splendour as had never before been seen on Theresienwiese and would never again be experienced there. The versatile Ernst von Destouches (1843-1916) – archivist, city chronicler, historian and initiator of the municipal museum – curated a jubilee exhibition and looked after the publication of three magnificent jubilee books. Splendid decorative staffage buildings on Theresienwiese, countless costumes, a historical procession, which put even the procession of 1835 in its place, further celebrations, receptions and historicising sports events left their marks on an organisation that was going to be one of the last great self-celebrations of royal Bavaria and of royal Munich. The last Bavarian King Ludwig III (1845-1921), still as prince regent, participated only once (1913) at an Oktoberfest, before WWI was going to end the era of royal Oktoberfests forever.

Free State of Bavaria and National Socialism

The greatest test for the Oktoberfest arrived with the end of WWI and with the fall of King Ludwig III in the year 1918. For with the end of the monarchy one of the most important symbolic aspects of pre-war Oktoberfests ceased to exist: the self-representation and self-celebration of the royal family. The connection between horse races and the Oktoberfest was no longer as strong as before: for equestrianism that had become professionalised meanwhile, even before the war, well-equipped racetracks had been built, to which the improvised tracks on Theresienwiese (Theresia Meadow) could not compare.

It was in particular the merit of the riflemen’s associations to give decisive impulses for the restart of the festivities. As early as in 1919, a festive shooting competition was held on Theresienwiese and accompanied by a modest “autumnal feast” to be repeated in 1920. In 1921 and 1922, regular Oktoberfests took place before the galloping inflation forced the festivities to be interrupted for two years. In 1925, for the first time since 1913, the central agricultural fair was held and the publicans organised the first documented ingression of the “Wies’n”-publicans. Overall, poverty influenced the Oktoberfests during Weimar Republic: people still sought entertainment but had little money to spend, so during that period the expenditure of the exhibitors and hosts often enough exceeded their income.

In 1930, the old system of pathways from the days of the monarchy, which had led towards the roundel with the space for the former Königszelt (Royal Tent), was abolished and a new system, in place to this day, with streets for booths and fairground exhibitors was created.

With the NS takeover of power in the year of 1933, the image of the festivity was gradually changed bit by bit. In 1933, a central agricultural fair took place for the last time before the provincial chambers of agriculture were dissolved. Jewish citizens were not allowed to work on the “Wiesn” (Meadow), neither were the highly popular “abnormalities”, such as Siamese Twins or the handicapped, permitted to perform from now on. In 1934, the fanatical NS-city councillor and former horse trader
Christian Weber (1883-1945) initiated the resumption of horse races plus additional SS-equestrian parades.

The 125th jubilee of the Oktoberfest in the year 1935 was splendidly celebrated under NS auspices. The fellowship of peasants and citizens was evoked; in the festive procession next to groups in traditional costumes and groups of riflemen marched large delegations in NS uniforms. Contemporaneous publications with their almost unobtrusive appearance of swastika give the wrong impression, for at the time the image of Theresienwiese was already massively dominated by swastika flags. A year later, in 1936, the Bavarian or Munich heraldic colours were completely forbidden, the processions of riflemen and those in traditional dress were finally amalgamated and the breweries were forced to participate in the communal parade of the Wies’n hosts. The gravelled paths across the meadow were now tarmacked.

The outbreak of war in 1939 caused the longest interruption of the festivities. Solely in 1940, a small substitute event took place at the circus venue in Martin-Greif-Straße.

The Greatest Public Festival on Earth

After the deprivations of the war period, finally in 1949 a proper Oktoberfest was held. Between the years 1946 and 1948, there had been smaller autumnal festivals, at which it had been possible to exchange food stamps for small beer. On 16 September 1950, Chief Mayor Thomas Wimmer (1887-1964) opened the Oktoberfest for the first time in the Schottenhamel tent with the now traditional “O'zapft is!”. [the cask is tapped]

Since then the Oktoberfest has turned from a Bavarian into a worldwide festival, into a brand that is successfully exported and represents for the city of Munich an important economic factor. Not even the horrendous attack of 26 September 1980 when 13 died and over 200 were hurt, was able to lead to the closing down of the event.

Today’s Oktoberfest is despite all of its (political) VIPs no longer an event that serves the representation or the self-assurance of a dynasty or urban elite. Even Bavarian agriculture these days rarely receives inspiration from the central agricultural fairs. The riflemen are still represented at the Oktoberfest by means of their contests, but so well hidden that many visitors would hardly notice them without the riflemen’s parade in traditional costumes. The “normal” visitors are these days at the centre of attention, visitors who seek relaxation and entertainment together with others, either in the beer tent, on the fairground rides or at one of the many further additional attractions. To some extent, the Oktoberfest has become what it is termed by a keyword in some of the earliest publications: a real public festival.

Literature (in selection)

  • Richard Bauer/Fritz Fenzl [Hrsgg.], 175 Jahre Oktoberfest 1810-1985, München 1985.
  • Florian Dering [Hrsg.], Das Oktoberfest. Einhundertfünfundsiebzig Jahre bayerischer National-Rausch. [Katalog zur] Jubiläumsausstellung im Münchner Stadtmuseum 25. Juli bis 3. November 1985, veranstaltet vom Münchner Stadtmuseum, Stadtarchiv München und Verein Münchner Oktoberfestmuseum, München 1985.
  • Florian Dering/Ursula Eymold [Hrsgg.], Das Oktoberfest 1810 - 2010. Offizielle Festschrift der Landeshauptstadt München, München 2010.
  • Ernst von Destouches, Säkular-Chronik des Münchener Oktoberfestes (Zentral-Landwirtschafts-Festes) 1810 - 1910. Festschrift zur Hundertjahrfeier, München 1910.
  • Anne Dreesbach, "Neu! Grösste Sehenswürdigkeit! Neu! Zum ersten Male in München!" Exotisches auf dem Münchner Oktoberfest zwischen 1890 und 1911, in: dies./Helmut Zedelmaier [Hrsgg.], "Gleich hinterm Hofbräuhaus waschechte Amazonen". Exotik in München um 1900, München/Hamburg 2003, S. 9 - 33.
  • Gerda Möhler, Das Münchner Oktoberfest. Vom bayerischen Ladwirtschaftsfest zum größten Volksfest der Welt, München/Wien/Zürich 1981.
  • Brigitte Veiz, Das Oktoberfest. Masse, Rausch und Ritual. Sozialpsychologische Betrachtungen eines Phänomens, Gießen 2006.

Information on the Project

The Bayerische Staatsbibliothek (Bavarian State Library) as a universal library located in Munich preserves numerous works on the history of the Oktoberfest. In particular, the early years of the festival are covered by means of almost complete holdings of publications. Many works, including most of the here presented complimentary poetry, originated as the private property of King Ludwig I , who in 1846 presented the Library with almost 5,000 printed works (more on the “Donatio Ludovici” may be found here ).

Many additional publications of and about the Oktoberfest, which can be counted among the “grey” literature (programmes, flyers, tickets and placards) the Library had collected during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries rather unsystematically. Single copies attest to the fact library workers occasionally brought material they had themselves bought and collected into the Library inventory. Since the end of WWII, the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek in its function of central state and archival library of Bavaria systematically collects material relating to the Oktoberfest.

The holdings of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, which complement the great municipal collections in Munich, are so diverse that they cover a wide range of themes. Given the wealth of objects, it was necessary to proceed by way of example and to make a selection. In this case, particular care was taken to represent each type of source that exists at the Library by at least one digital copy. The chronological borders are set by copyright.

“Quellen und Darstellungen zur Geschichte des Münchener Oktoberfest” (Sources and Depictions on the History of the Munich Oktoberfest) originated in 2010 as an offer by the Bayerische Landesbibliothek Online (BLO), the central information portal on cultural studies in Bavaria. Selection and digitisation were undertaken in collaboration with the special departments, with the Institut für Buch- und Handschriftenrestaurierung (IBR) (Institute for Book and Manuscript Restoration) and with the Münchener Digitalisierungszentrum (MDZ) (Munich Centre for Digitisation) of the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek. In collaboration with the Münchner Stadtmuseum (Munich Municipal Museum) the famous image cycles of the two festive parades of 1835 and 1842 could be made available.